The Gold Rush No One Controls: How Illegal Mining is Reshaping Africa

Last Saturday, February 15, the ground suddenly gave way in an abandoned gold mine near Kéniéba, Mali. Dozens of informal miners — many of them women and children — were sifting through discarded earth in search of gold when the open pit caved in. By the time rescue efforts concluded that day, at least48 people had died, victims of Africa's vast and dangerous illegal mining industry.

The tragedy highlights a growing crisis across the continent, where illegal mining has emerged as a powerful force reshaping Africa's resource landscape — fueling both economic survival and widespread destruction. From the gold-rich regions of Mali to South Africa's abandoned mine shafts and Ghana's polluted rivers, informal mining operations are expanding beyond government control, drawing in tens of thousands of workers while devastating local environments.

"There are about 6,100 closed mines in South Africa, many with several shafts, and Zama Zamas tend to ply their trade in those closed shafts," Rosalind Morris, director-producer of We Are Zama Zama, a documentary onillegal mining in South Africa, tells OkayAfrica. These informal miners, known locally as Zama Zamas, now rival the formal mining sector in numbers. "We estimate tens of thousands are engaged in [illegal mining] — perhaps even more than the roughly 30,000 people employed in the formal sector."

The scale of illegal mining across Africa is staggering. According to theIntergovernmental Forum on Mining, artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) accounts for 20 percent of global gold production and employs 80 percent of the world's gold workforce. While not all ASM operations are illegal, 70 to 80 percent operate outside regulatory frameworks, contributing to widespread smuggling and environmental degradation.

In Ghana, illegal mining — known as "galamsey" — has become so entrenched that Ghanaian miners are now exporting their expertise to Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire and Sierra Leone. "We have exported our expertise in illegal mining to these other countries," says Edudzi Nyomi, a #StopGalamseyNow activist based in Accra. "Almost every region in Ghana is affected, and the water crisis in Cape Coast is one of the worst consequences."

The environmental impact is severe. In Cape Coast, air pollution levelsare five times the World Health Organization'srecommended guidelines. Rivers that once provided clean water are now heavily contaminated. Reports from The Fourth Estatereveal that mining concessions linked to Mech Resources, a mining company allegedly owned by the children of Ghana's former chief of staff, Frema Opare, have contributed to the pollution of major waterways, including the Ankobra and Tano Rivers.

The problem extends beyond environmental destruction. In Mali, where the recent mine collapsed, the vast, remote mining areas make regulation nearly impossible. "Illegal mining is common in Mali, particularly in gold-rich areas," Cheick N'Diaye, a mining sector worker, tells OkayAfrica. "The biggest hotspots are in the western and southern regions, especially around Kéniéba, Kangaba, and Yanfolila."

Many abandoned mining sites in Mali, particularly those once operated by foreign companies, have become unsafe zones, exacerbating the risks miners face. Unlike large-scale operations in countries like South Africa, mining in Mali remains predominantly small-scale, which still contributes to extensive environmental damage and economic instability. "The use of harmful chemicals and unregulated practices has led to soil degradation, deforestation, and water pollution," shares N'Diyae. "The recent mine collapse was reportedly at a site abandoned by a Chinese company. This is common, as many abandoned mining sites are left in hazardous conditions. These abandoned locations often become hotspots for illegal mining, increasing safety risks for miners."

The financial scale of illegal mining is equally massive. A 2024 Swissaid report revealed thatover 435 metric tons of gold, worth approximately $31 billion, was smuggled out of Africa in 2022 alone. The United Arab Emirates has becomethe leading destination for smuggled gold, receiving 2,569 tons of undeclared gold from Africa between 2012 and 2022 — equivalent to around $115.3 billion.

Attempts to crack down on illegal mining have proven ineffective and sometimes dangerous. In Ghana, anti-mining protesters have faced arrest and police violence. "I was one of 53 protesters illegally arrested at the Stop Galamsey Now protests," says Elorm Ama Governor-Ababio, who was charged with multiple offenses during a September 2024 demonstration.

In Ghana, illegal mining is "almost institutionalized," according to Nyomi. "Government officials or relatives of government officials also have concessions, and they are making millions of dollars from illegal mining," Nyomi explains. "Ghana's government has failed to enforce laws that regulate mining and ensure it doesn't come at the cost of the environment and the people."

In South Africa, the situation has taken an even more troubling turn, with organized crime syndicates controlling large portions of the illegal mining trade. "Criminal organizations are trafficking in labor, organizing the mining underground, and controlling access to the sites," Morris notes. "They are increasingly working with authorities." The involvement of armed gangs has also made enforcement perilous, leading toviolent clashes between police and miners.

The persistence of illegal mining is deeply rooted in economic inequality. As digital financial systems exclude people without formal banking access, unminted gold has become a major store of value in informal economies. "Maybe 15 percent of the world's population is excluded from digital credit," Morris estimates. "So they need gold, just as criminal organizations need unminted gold because it can't be traced."

Addressing the crisis requires tackling its fundamental causes: poverty, weak enforcement, and the complicity of powerful interests. Yet, with millions relying on informal mining for survival, simple crackdowns are unlikely to succeed. "We are seeing an exponential growth in the gap between the wealthiest and the poorest," Morris says. "The more people are excluded from formal economies, the more they will enter into informal economies."

Until structural changes are made to address the root causes driving people into dangerous informal mining, this crisis will persist, reshaping economies, landscapes, and livelihoods across the continent.